Self-Reflection: A Possible Key to Elite Performance

There is little doubt that an athlete’s attitude towards practice affects how much is learned and how much improvement is made. Focus, effort, and attention are all important to leaning and developing the skills needed to compete at a high level. In a new study focusing on Dutch youth players, researchers found that the ability of players to reflect on and critically evaluate their own performance may be an important developmental aspect. Their findings show that elite youth players often use the process of self-reflection. They are more aware of weaknesses in their game and use this information to invest more effort into practice than their less talented peers.

The researchers examined a concept called self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability to control ones thoughts, feelings and actions. This usually refers to an individual’s capacity to respond and adapt to their social or physical surroundings. For an athlete, self-direction is often thought of in terms of performance on the field - focus, attitude and decision making during a match. However, self-direction can also be applied to player development. In this case, the athlete uses self-regulation to identify and correct weaknesses and to focus on achieving those goals. In short, a self-directed player has the psychological characteristics to understand what they need to do to improve performance as well as the motivation to make those changes.

In this study, youth players (U13-U17) affiliated with Dutch professional clubs (elite) and regional clubs (sub-elite) were enrolled. All of the elite players played in the highest national leagues and while most of the sub-elite players played in regional and local leagues. All of the players were administered a questionnaire designed to assess various aspects of self-regulation such as planning, evaluation, reflection, effort and confidence.

The results of the questionnaires showed that the elite players excelled in two key areas of self-regulation: reflection and effort. The elite players more often reflected on their training and competitive performances. This allowed them to identify weaknesses in their game and to develop strategies for improvement. The elite players were also more motivated to put in the time and effort needed to correct their shortcomings. The researchers argued that these personality traits translate into a more effective developmental environment. By understanding their weaknesses and being driven to improve, the elite players get more out of competition and training sessions than do the sub-elite players. In a nutshell, the elite players know what to work on in training and are motivated to improve. This is a concept called deliberate practice – training that is directed towards specific outcomes.

What does this mean for the coach and player? Coaches often talk with players and point out weaknesses and shortcomings in the players abilities. In many cases, information flows in one direction, from the coach to the player. The authors of this study suggest that this pathway be reversed. Instead of simply telling players what they need to work on, encourage them to reflect on their performance and critically evaluate what aspects of their game need improvement. Have them think about what they did well and more, importantly, what they did poorly. Once players can describe where their weaknesses lie, help them identify ways to improve and develop a more deliberate practice session. By using this approach, players will be more motivated because they understand why certain drills are being used and will “buy into” what the coach is trying to accomplish. The goal is to have players use reflection on past performances to put more effort onto executing skills more successfully.

Using a self-directed approach to training that includes self-reflection will make it possible for players to develop their skills more effectively. This in turn will lead to faster development, greater skill development and improved performance on the pitch.

Reference:

Toering TT, Elferink-Gemser MT, Jordet G, Visscher C (2009) Self-regulation and performance on elite and non-elite youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI:10.1080/02640410903369919
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Menthol: Fresh Breath and Better Performance?

Exercising in the heat is always a difficult task. Hot environments place a tremendous demand on the cardiovascular and thermoregulatory systems. This typically leads to decreased performance, particularly in sports that last an hour or more. As a result, coaches and players are always searching for new ways to perform in the heat. In a new study, researchers at Manchester Metropolitan University in the United Kingdom report that simply rinsing the mouth with menthol, a common flavoring agent, can actually improve performance during exercise in a hot environment.

The researchers asked nine moderately trained subjects to exercise on a stationary bicycle at ~65% of their maximal capacity. They were told to continue exercising as long as possible while the total duration was recorded. On one occasion, subjects swilled a 0.01% menthol solution in their mouth for 10 seconds after which it was spit out without swallowing. On the other occasion, they swilled an orange flavored placebo drink. They were given the solution every 10 minutes and were allowed to drink as much water as they wanted. All of the bouts were performed in the heat at a room temperature of 34°C or 93°F.

Eight of the nine subjects improved their exercise duration when they swilled the menthol. Total exercise time increased from an average of 58 to 63 minutes. Despite this improvement in performance, there were no differences in the subjects’ body temperature or the amount of energy expended. What seemed to be improved was the perception of their effort. Overall, the subjects felt that that the menthol was “refreshing” and “stimulating”. This resulted in the subjects feeling a reduced sense of effort during the exercise bout, particularly a reduced effort of breathing. That is, breathing felt easier which made the exercise seem easier.

The authors conclude that the improvement in performance was probably due to psychological factors. The menthol may have stimulated some region of the mouth which activated a network of taste- and reward-regions of the brain. The pleasantness of a cool mouth coupled with taste and flavor may have caused the subjects to experience less discomfort as they were approaching exhaustion.

Menthol is an interesting compound. It comes from various mint oils as well as peppermint. When it is applied to the skin, there is a cooling sensation. The same sensation is experienced when taken orally. As a result, many companies include menthol in all sorts of skin creams, foods, mouthwashes, medications and cigarettes. Ben Gay ointment, peppermint candies, and many throat lozenges all contain menthol. Some people report that this cooling effect increases alertness and reduces minor pain. For example, a throat lozenge soothing sore throat pain. So it is not surprising that swilling a menthol drink might reduce one’s perception of breathing during exercise.

There are a few important points to be made about this study. First, and most importantly, the menthol did not actually lower body temperature. The improvement in performance does not indicate that menthol protects against any of the potential problems of exercising in the heat such as dehydration. It remains very important that when exercising in the heat, players drink plenty of fluids and to be aware of heat-related illness and injury.

Second, the type of exercise performed in this study doesn’t really simulate match play. The subjects were asked to exercise at a constant, pre-determined pace and to continue as long as possible. Match play requires players to start and stop and run at a variety of speeds. This means that the reduced perceived exertion caused by the menthol may be specific to the type of exercise studied and may not occur during an activity like soccer. Also, it is difficult, if not impossible for players to drink every 10 minutes during a match.

Despite these drawbacks, the finding that menthol may improve performance is intriguing. While it may not actually combat the physiological effects of exercising in the heat, including it in drinks may have some positive psychological effect. This study also adds to a growing body of research showing that what goes into your mouth may affect exercise. Earlier, the SSO reported that merely swilling a carbohydrate beverage (sports drink) might also affect the central nervous system and improve performance (LINK). These studies suggest that the mouth may be more important than previously thought. It may be more than a simple a passage way to the stomach but a key sensory component of perceived exertion.

Reference:

Mundel T, Jones DA (2009) The effects of swilling an L(-)-menthol solution during exercise in the heat. European Journal of Applied Physiology, DOI: 10.1007/s00421-009-1180-0
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Are We Stifling Creative Play?

An article posted on the website, Scientific Blogging, describes a talk given by speaker and author Dan Pink. A common belief is that extrinsic motivation in the form of rewards can improve performance. However, scientific research shows that incentivising a problem-solving task may stifle creativity and actually hinder the outcome. That is, the traditional carrot and stick approach seems to weaken problem solving abilities. Could it be that we are motivating players the wrong way? Is the reward system often used in training, limiting the players ability to develop on-field problem solving abilities?

Dan Pink emphasizes several research papers that look at problem solving in people who are offered incentives for their solutions. In these studies, subjects are given a task that requires them to formulate a creative solution to solve a problem. If the subjects are told that they will be rewarded for the fastest completion time, subjects actually take LONGER to solve the problem than when no reward is offered. They become focused on the reward and lose the ability to think creatively. Their reasoning capacity limits how they come up with a solution. If the subjects are left on their own with no reward, their intrinsic motivation drives the problem solving. They are then able to solve the problem in a shorter time period using a more innovative solution. In short, offering an external incentive as a motivational tool seems to prevent subjects from thinking outside of the box, so to speak.

Dan Pink presents this idea in the context of the business world and employees that need to solve tough problems. However, there may be implications for training soccer players. One criticism of US players is that they are not very creative in their play. Soccer requires a considerable amount of problem solving skill. Whether defending or attacking, players must “see the field”, think through a list of possible options, then execute. Only on set pieces can they “run a play”, so to speak. The question then is how to train players to think creatively. How can they be more creative on the field?

Many coaches often use a rewards system during practices. For example, the winners of a small sided match are often given a reward and the losing team suffers a consequence. It’s not uncommon for the losing team to run sprints while the winners take a break. Coaches have long argued that this sort of competition make better players. However, could this carrot and stick approach be stifling the kids’ creativity? In this system, are the players more focused on the incentive rather than solving the problem? That is, are they more focused on not running sprints rather than figuring out how to attack and defend as a team? If this is the case, might they be less motivated to play more creativity?

Compare this to basketball. Playgrounds and gyms are filled with kids playing pick-up games. Here there is no reward for winning or punishment for losing (other than personal pride). The players own intrinsic motivation drives their efforts. They are free to try a wide range of solutions without repercussion. Kids try all sorts of new moves, some of which work and some don’t. The bottom line is that they are thinking outside of the box in an environment that allows them to do so. The result is that US basketball players are the most creative on the planet. Is their success linked to an environment that fosters creativity?

As mentioned above, Dan Pink presents his ideas for the business community, not the sports world. Also, he is talking about motivating adults to solve complex business problems not a bunch of middle school soccer players trying to win matches. Whether this approach is effective with young athletes remains to be seen. However, these ideas are certainly food for thought. They certainly raise questions about how we motivate young kids to become better soccer players.

Scientific Blogging Article (click here)

Dan Pink's Talk (click here)

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The Role Soccer Clubs Can Play in Promoting Healthy Lifestyles

It is clear that a growing health concern in the US and many other countries is the increasing incidence of obesity and related diseases. Over the past few years, the number of children and adolescents who are classified as overweight and obese has increased dramatically. Unfortunately, statistics show that these children will very likely grow up to be obese adults with a whole host of associated health issues such as hypertension, diabetes and orthopedic problems. A large contributor to this problem is the lack of regular physical activity.

Soccer clubs are in a unique position to combat what is now considered a health crisis. Soccer offers individuals of all ages the opportunity to engage in regular exercise through structured programs and within a social network. Soccer can also help kids develop skills and habits that can lead to a healthier adulthood.

Most soccer programs offer youth players the opportunity to exercise anywhere from two to five days per week. Practice sessions usually involve components of fitness (running), strength training (stopping, starting and cutting maneuvers) and motor skill development (ball control). Soccer also provides a social network for those involved. Whether a competitive or recreational team, players exercise together. Indeed, soccer is one of the best activities for promoting fitness in children and adolescents. Also, organized leisure-time activates, including sports, is associated with improved health, academic achievement and better social adjustment (Mahoney et al, 2006).

This concept can bee seen on almost any soccer field. Young kids are exercising, laughing and playing with their friends. At the end of the session, many are sweating and out of breath, smiling from ear to ear and asking when they can practice again. It’s this love of the game and enjoyment for exercise that is the key to promoting fitness.

The immediate health benefits for young players are obvious. However, the real benefit of playing may not appear until adulthood. That is, kids who play youth sports are far more likely to engage in physical activity as adults. They are more likely to develop a life-style that will help avoid weight gain and all of its associated problems.

Here are a few findings from the research community:

Participation in sports clubs at young ages increases the odds of being physically active later in life by 5- to 6-fold (Aarnio et al., 2002).

Participation in sports twice or more per week at age 14 is associated with a high level of physical activity at age 31 (Tammelin et al., 2003).

The amount of time 35 year old spend exercising is correlated with the amount time spent in organized physical activity programs at ages 10-12 (Trudeau et al., 2004).

Children who continue with a sports program through their adolescent years are more likely to exercise as young adults than children who drop out at an earlier age (Kjonniksen et al, 2008).

The conclusion is that the longer children participate in organized sports programs, the more likely they are to develop a habit of exercising as an adult. Given this, soccer clubs are in a position to play a key role in improving the health of future adults. Based on this, the European Union has emphasized the important role that sports clubs can play in promoting life-long physical activity. They feel that the sport as a tool for promoting health and physical activity has a greater influence on children, teens and young adults that any other activity or program. They also feel that sports clubs are one of the more under-utilized pathways to a healthier lifestyle. At a time when physical education in the schools is being reduced or even eliminated, it is important for sports clubs to fill the exercise void.

A key age for developing life-long exercise habits seems to be around 15-16 years old. It is at this age that sports programs have the largest drop rate. During the mid-teen years, adolescents find more academic and social activities, many enter the part-time work force and some lose their enjoyment of the sport. If clubs can keep kids active through their teen years, the impact on their adult exercise habits is much greater.

So, what is needed to capitalize on the health promotion benefits of youth soccer?

First, clubs should offer programs for kids of all abilities from novice to expert, from young to old. There should be opportunities for competitive athletes as well as those who “just want to get in some exercise”. Most importantly, players should develop an enjoyment for the game and an appreciation for being fit and healthy.

Second, all programs should stress and promote the role of physical activity in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. This includes emphasizing both exercise and diet in maintain one’s fitness level. Not only will these two aspects improve fitness of the recreational player but it will increase performance of the competitive athlete.

Third, clubs should offer multiple opportunities and varieties for participation. The objective is for kids to continue participation without the program growing stale. Many participants in youth sport programs drop out around age 15-16. Offering new and exciting programs at this age will help avoid boredom and burn out that often accompanies “doing the same thing over and over”.

It is clear that youth soccer clubs can play a key role in promoting a healthy lifestyle. By instilling a life-long enjoyment of exercise and proper diet, soccer clubs can improve fitness in youth and help instill habits for a healthy adulthood.

References:

Aarnio et al. (2002) Stability of leisure-time physical activity during adolescence – a longitudinal study among 16-, 17- and 18-year-old Finnish youth. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine, Science and Sports, 12:179-185.

Kjonniksen et al (2008) Organized youth sport as a predictor of physical activity in adulthood. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine, Science and Sports, 18: 1-9.

Mahoney et al. (2006) Organized activity participation, positive youth development, and the over-scheduling hypothesis. Social Policy Report, 20:3-32 (by the Society for Research in Child Development, National Academy of Sciences).

Tammelin et al. (2003) Adolescent participation in sports and adult physical activity. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 24: 22-28.

Trudeau et al., (2004) Tracking o f physical activity from childhood to adulthood. Medicine, Science and Sports in Exercise, 36:1937-1943.
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Cutting-Edge Research: Psychological and Emotional State Following a Concussion

Unfortunately, head injuries are all too common in sports. Concussions occur in a variety of sports including soccer. Typically head-to-head or head-to-ground contact can result in injury ranging from a mild to severe concussion. These injuries should be taken seriously and the return to play taken slowly. A new study from a group of Canadian researchers indicates that the psychological and emotional response to head injury is much different from the responses to other types of injuries. The sluggishness and lack of energy that follows a concussion need to be taken into account when injured athletes return to play.

The study appears in the January 2009 issue of Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine. It examined the mood state of three groups of athletes – those who had suffered a concussion, a musculoskeletal injury (sprains, fractures, etc) or no injury. Psychological and mood state analyses were performed over a two week period immediately after being injured. Players were given interviews to determined factors such as mental/emotional fatigue, vigor/energy, confusion, depression and anger.

The researchers found that after injury, athletes who suffered a concussion experienced a high degree of mental and emotional fatigue and a sizeable lack of vigor. These feelings of lethargy were greater than those experienced by athletes who had suffered a non-head injury and those who were not injured. They also persisted for at least two weeks after suffering the concussion. Interestingly, both groups of injured athletes experienced very mild depression after injury.

Following a concussion, there are a number of chemical and metabolic changes within the brain as it attempts to recover from injury. This often results in outward symptoms such as headache, nausea and lack of attention. The lethargy experienced by the concussed athletes is probably another, less obvious symptom of the injured brain.

The key finding of this study is that athletes suffering a concussion may experience lethargy, fatigue and suffer a lack of energy for several weeks after being injured. In some cases, athletes who received a concussion can be cleared from play after 7-10 days. Coaches should realize that even though they are cleared to play, these athletes may appear to be giving less that full effort. They should remember that this is a consequence of a neurolophysiological injury, one in which brain chemistry and metabolism may be altered from some time. Just a limping is an outward sign that an ankle injury is not fully healed, lethargy can be an indication that the athlete is still recovering from a concussion.

Reference:

Hutchison M, Mainwaring L, Comper P, Richards DW, Bisschop SM (2009) Differential emotional responses of varsity athletes to concussion and musculoskeletal injuries. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 19: 13-19.
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Cutting Edge Research: Imagery and Playing with Confidence

Michael Emenalo, Chief Scout of Chelsea, stresses the importance of confidence, balance and organization for success on the pitch. Confident players, for the most part, have a better touch on the ball, execute more precise passes and shoot the ball with more accuracy. Confident players are also willing to take calculated chances such as taking a difficult shot, or aggressively pressuring an opponent. On the other hand, less confident players have difficulty with technical execution and tend to play a less aggressive, more conservative style. In many cases it, it the confident player and confident team that wins the match.

So, how does one gain confidence? A new study soon to be released in the Journal of Sports Sciences argues that confidence in youth players might be enhanced by using mental imagery techniques.

Before getting into the details of the study, it is important to describe the different type of confidence as well as different types of imagery. Confidence comes from two sources. First, self-confidence is the athlete’s perception that he/she has the ability to compete at a given level. Second, self-efficacy is the athlete’s perception that he can be successful at a certain task, in a specific situation. For example, to be completely confident, an athlete should be confident that he belongs on the field with the other team and that he has the necessary to compete (self-confidence). He must also be sure that he can beat the opponent in specific situations, such as one-on-one defending, winning 50/50 balls or placing the shot in the corner of the goal (self-efficacy). Research shows that confidence, including both self-confidence and self-efficacy, is one of the most consistent factors shaping successful teams and players. More confidence often translates into better performance.

There are two major types of imagery that can be used. The first has to do with learning skills or strategies. This is referred to as cognitive which involves learning and includes cognitive general (CG) and cognitive specific (CS). CG imaging requires the athlete to image things like successful strategies or game plans. One might imagine how to successfully execute zone defending or a successful overlap. In CS imaging, the player images herself executing a specific skill correctly, perhaps correctly striking a penalty kick.

The second type of imaging is called motivational and includes motivational specific (MS) and motivational general (MG). Both are designed to psych the player up prior to the match. MS involves imaging specific events that will arouse motivation, such as standing on a victory stand or carrying a trophy. MS imagery includes both physiological and emotional arousal. For MG-arousal (MG-A) imagery, the athlete imagines herself responding to the environment such as remaining calm in front of a hostile crowd. MS-mastery (MG-M) is related to confidence and mental toughness. It involves images of the athlete overcoming adversity such as beating an opponent in a certain situation.

The authors of the paper have a long history investigating the use of imagery in sports. In their study, the authors examined 125 male and female soccer players, ages 11-14. Approximately one-third were considered competitive players and the remainder was from a local recreational program. They asked the kids a series of questions related to their level of self-confidence and self-efficacy. They also asked them about imagery. For this, they asked them how often they imagined themselves playing well, if they thought up game strategies in their head, saw themselves receiving a winner’s trophy. Using this information, the authors determined what types of imagery contributed to the various levels of confidence.

There were no differences between the competitive and recreational players or between the male a female players in terms of the types of imagery used or their levels of confidence. Players used the MG-M form of imagery more often and this strategy was most closely associated with both self-confidence and self-efficacy. The other forms of imagery were seen as important but were not nearly as closely associated with confidence. Thus, the MG-M form of imagery seems to be a significant predictor of self-confidence and self-efficacy.

Previous studies document that many adult athletes use MG-M imagery prior to competition to reduce anxiety and gain confidence. They often rehearse images of themselves overcoming adversity, specifically overcoming an opponent. Other forms of imagery are used but MG-M is the most prevalent in terms of building confidence. The idea is that by imagining yourself in a difficult situation, remaining mentally tough, in control and overcoming the opponent builds confidence, and, as a result, improves performance on the field. In a small group of adult badminton players, it was found that an intervention program of MG-M imagery increased athlete confidence. Thus, it seems that using imagery to increase mental toughness and overcome adversity may boost confidence and improve play on the field. It is important to note, however, that more research is needed to fully clarify this issue, particularly in youth players.

Overall, this study links one form of imagery, MG-M to both self-confidence and self-efficacy in a group of youth soccer players. More confident players use this type of imagery. Despite a lack of research into modifying the way in which players image themselves, it does seem reasonable to encourage young players to routinely think of themselves overcoming difficult match situations.

Reference:

Munroe-Chandler K, Hall C, Fishburne G (2008) Playing with confidence: The relationship between imagery use and self-confidence in youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640410802315419 (in press)
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Cutting-Edge Research: PK Shootouts, Pressure and Choking

Choking under pressure is far too common at all levels of sport. Choking occurs when players under perform in situations where there is a high degree of importance. In soccer, the highest-pressure situation is the penalty kick shootouts. Individual efforts can often mean the difference between winning and losing a championship. Some players step forward and bury their kicks. Others choke, sometimes missing the goal entirely.

What causes some players for succeed and some to choke during high pressure situations? Drs. Geir Jordet and Esther Hartmen of the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences addressed this question in a research article published in the August 2008 issue of the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Their study focused on the success and behavior of players taking penalty kicks and pressures surrounding their effort.

The investigators viewed video tapes of penalty kick shootouts that occurred during matches played in the World Cup, European Championships and Champions League competitions between 1972 and 2006. Overall, there were 36 shootouts involving 359 kicks and 291 players.

They focused on three key variables that affected success. The first was “valence”, an indicator of the perceived pressure. Many times, the outcome of the match is not directly dependent on the success of the attempt. The shootout goes on whether the kicker is successful or not. For example, the match is neither won nor lost on the first attempt in a shootout. This is referred to as a neutral valence. At some point during the shootout, a player has the chance to end patch with a successful kick. With a goal, his team wins. But with a miss, the shootout continues. This is defined as a positive valence because of the possible positive outcome. On the other hand, players are faced with the situation where a missed kick would end the match and result in the team losing. This is negative valence because of the possibility of a negative result.

The second variable was “avoidance behavior”. Approach looking players placed the ball at the penalty mark then walked backwards, facing the keeper, in preparation for the attempt. Avoidance looking players, placed the ball, turned and walked away with their back to the keeper.

The final variable was preparation speed. This was defined as the time from when the referee signaled the kick to until the shooter began his run-up. This is a time period that can be controlled by the player.

The investigators found several interesting relationships between these variables and success of the penalty kick. In the situation of negative valence, when losing the match was a possibility, players more often avoided looking at the goal keeper and took less preparation time. As for performance, players were far more successful in the situation of positive valence. When making the kick meant victory and a miss meant continuing the shootout, players were successful 92% of the time. However, when faced with negative valence, players made only 62% of their shots. Thus, the possibility of a negative outcome results in more misses than the potential of a positive result. This condition also seems to cause players to alter their approach to taking the shot.

Success in penalty kicks seems to be dependent, to some extent, on how the player perceives the outcome. Most researchers feel that the negative valence situation is more pressure packed. That is, fear of being a goat is more stressful than the possibility of being a hero. This study bears this out. Players are more likely to choke when a miss means losing a match. They seem to respond poorly when they may be punished for failure as opposed to rewarded for success. It is possible that this fear of failure causes players to change the way they approach their shot. Players that choke during pressure packed situations tend to avoid looking at the goalie and when they take kicks quickly after the referees signal. This may reflect a lack of confidence in their ability.

Choking under pressure is a very complex phenomenon. Many, many factors contribute to performance under pressure situations. This study provides a small glimpse into how and why players playing at the highest level sometimes fail.

Reference

Jordet G, Hartmen E (2008) Avoidance motivation and choking under pressure in soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 30:450-457.

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Cutting-Edge Research: Impacting Tournament Performance

Team performance at a youth soccer tournament can be influenced by a multitude of variables. During training, coaches often coaches focus on the physical and cognative aspects of the came and the development of technical and tactical skills. However, there is an array of psychological and sociological factors that affect youth players and can play a key roll in determining the success of the team. Issues such as relationships among team members and with the coaching staff, individual and team expectations and goals as well as organizational challenges. To identify the specific variables that affected tournament teams, Drs. Matthew Pain and Chris Harwood of Loughborough University set out to describe the “performance environment” of English youth soccer teams. This environment included a number of psychosocial variables, many of which seem to have a strong positive impact on tournament performance. The article appears in the August 2008 issue of the Journal of Sports Sciences.

The researchers surveys 82 male players who had represented England at international youth tournaments over a two year period. Their average age was 16 years. The investigators also surveyed 23 staff members (coaches and support staff), all of whom had considerable experience at the national and international level.

Using the Performance Environment Survey, several variables in the psychosocial realm were surveyed. Players and staff were asked to evaluate 38 variables, noting if they affected performance “very much so”, “somewhat” or “not at all”. For example, one variable was phrased as “”I fully understood my role on the team”. Variables identified by a large majority as “very much so” were considered as having a positive impact on performance.

The researchers found that both players and staff felt that team cohesion and the presence of a strong team leader have the most positive impact on performance. The players felt that understanding the team goals, their individual role on the team and the demands of their position are also important factors for success. In this regard, the players emphasized the need for clear communication by the coach. Lastly positive fan support (parents and friends) was identified by the players as an important variable.

The staff noted their concern for hydration, nutrition and recovery strategies and the need to be organized as far as transportation, meals.

Overall, these players and staff felt that the key factors for success fell in the team / social domain. In particular, team cohesion, a strong team leader and player-coach communication were identified as the most important performance factors. The players were less concerned with variables that they could not control (e.g. transportation, hotel accommodations).

It should be pointed out that this survey included elite players participating in international-level tournaments. Thus, the results may not be directly applicable to youth players participating in club tournaments. However, the information can be instructive in preparing club teams for an upcoming tournament (or the upcoming season) It’s clear that coaches could maximize performance by:

1. Working to develop team cohesion, possibly through social activities before and during the tournament.
   
2. Fostering the development of strong team leaders by encouraging players to take on leadership roles within the team.
   
3. Clearly communicating with players. Insuring that they understand their role on the team as well as the team goals and individual player expectations.
   
4. Encouraging enthusiastic and positive spectator support.

Parents and administrators can aid the staff by taking care of all of the non-soccer details of a tournament. They can provide strong organization by insuring that details such as transportation to and from the venue are covered and post-match drinks and meals are arranged.

Overall, this study identifies several psychosocial variables that impact tournament performance. It also provides a few guidelines for coaches and administrators whrn preparing for upcoming tournaments.

Reference:

Pain MA, Harwood CG (2008) the performance environment of the England youth soccer teams: A quantitative investigation. Journal of Sports Sciences, 13:1-13.

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Cutting Edge Research: No Adverse Effects of Heading

Given the growing popularity of soccer in the US and other countries, there is the need to continually look at safety issues surrounding the sport. Over the past years, some have raised the issue that heading the ball can lead to neurological problems. Most agree that striking the ball (or other objects) with enough force to cause concussion can lead to brain injury. However, the adverse effects of routine heading are debatable. Two recently published studies examined the effects of purposeful heading, headers performed as part of a regular match, on neuropsychological function in female players. The results showed that purposeful heading was not associated with any of the measures of cognitive function, postural balance or neuropsychological test performance.

Both studies were authored by Dr. Thomas Kaminski at the University to Delaware. The first article appears in the July 2007 issue of the Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology and the second appears in the June 2008 issue of the journal, Perceptual and Motor Skills. Dr. Kaminski and colleagues reasoned that if heading the ball caused neurological damage then the number of headers performed during a competitive season would correlate with changes in cognitive learning, postural balance and/or neuropsychological test performance.

The female participants in the two studies ranged from high school freshmen to college aged players and included a wide range of skill levels. A group of college-aged non-soccer players served as the control group.

Before and after the competitive season, the players were administered two batteries of tests. In one study, cognitive function and postural balance tests were administered. In the second study, various tests of neuropsychological function were given. These included tests of reaction time, math processing and memory. Over the course of the season, the number of times each player headed the ball during sanctioned matches were tallied. The competitive seasons ranged in length from 12 to 14 weeks.

The researchers found that on average, high school level players performed less than one header per game whereas the college players executed 2.7 per game. Most importantly, changes in test performance across the course of the season were not different between the high school players, the college players and the control group. In fact, the college players tended to out perform their high school and non-playing counterparts in many of the tests. Further, there were no correlations between the average number of headers performed during matches and changes in neurological test performance. That is, players who executed more headers during matches did not show any adverse effects compared to players who headed less and non-playing control subjects.

These results lead the authors to conclude that purposeful heading, headers performed during matches, is not linked to any neuropsychological changes in female players.

The two studies do have some limitations. A major limitation is that the investigators recorded only headers performed during games. Training sessions were not examined as the focus of the study was on purposeful heading. It is likely that players perform far more headers during training than during individual matches. Also, only a single season was examined. The authors point out that longer term studies would reveal any long-term deficits develop in association with headers. For now though, there wee no effects seem over the course of a season.

Despite these limitations, both studies add to a large body of research indicating that heading the ball does not cause any adverse neurological or psychological problems. The risk of long-term injury from performing headers appears to be very minimal.

References:

Kaminski TW, Cousino ES, Glutting JJ (2008) Examining the relationship between purposeful heading in soccer and computerized neuropsychological test performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79:235-244.

Kaminski TW, Wilkstrom AM, Gutierrez, Glutting JJ (2007) Purposeful heading during a season does not influence cognitive function or balance in female soccer players. Journal of Clinical and Experiemental Neuropsychology, 29:742-752.
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Cutting-Edge Research: Developing Motor Skills Through Youth Soccer

In an earlier post, it was argued that youth soccer could be used as a weapon in the battle against childhood obesity. More a more research is pointing towards the use of sports programs as a way of improving the health and fitness of young children. A new study recently published in the Croatian journal Collegium Antropologicum by Dr. Marko Erceg and colleges at the University of Split (Split, Coratia) investigated the effects of soccer training motor development of young children. By supplementing standard physical education classes with a soccer training program the investigators found that motor skills, aerobic endurance, agility and flexibility were all greatly improved.

The investigators enrolled 180 seven and eight year-old boys in their study. The Croatian children were divided into two groups. Both groups participated in regular physical education programs. In addition, the experimental group received 45 minutes of soccer training, three times per week for 9 months. Training was conducted by experienced coaches and consisted of learning technical skills as well as free play. Before and after the nine month training period, a battery of motor skill and physical fitness tests were administered to both groups of children.

Following the nine month program, the experimental group showed improvements in nearly all measures of skill, agility, flexibility, speed and fitness. The degree of improvement was significantly greater that of the control group. Overall, the soccer training proved to be beneficial in developing the motor skills, muscular strength/power and aerobic capacity of the seven and eight year-old children.

Two issues should be pointed out. First, it is possible that other sports programs that involve technical skill might also enhance motor development. Activities such as basketball… may have the same effect. Second, Dr. Erceg’s research does not indicate that soccer training will have long-term effects on motor development. That is, there is no indication that children who participate in soccer at an early age will have greater motor skills once they mature. Despite these issues, this study is another piece of evidence supporting the use of youth sports for children. It is becoming more and more clear that a youth soccer program can be greatly beneficial in promoting the overall health and fitness of young children.

Reference:

Erceg M, Zagorac N, Katic R (2008) The impact of football training on motor development in male children. Collegium Antroplogicum, 1:241-347.



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The “Age-Effect” in US Soccer: An Update

A few weeks ago, this site posted an article discussing the "relative age effect" (RAE) in US soccer (posted below). The RAE occurs when players born early the selection year, the oldest players trying out for a team, are much more likely to be selected over their younger counterparts. There can be almost 12 months of age difference between the youngest and oldest players within a particular age group. In the original article, data based on the US National Team pools showed a clear and consistent bias towards selection of relatively older players in all of the pools ranging from the U15 to the National Team. In short, US soccer suffers from a RAE

In response to the post, several emails were received with three major questions. The first was is the RAE in the US National Team pool a real phenomenon or just a one-year anomaly. The second was is there a RAE in other national team pools. The last was what are the long-term implications of the RAE. To address these questions, a bit more analysis was done and new data have been added.

Is this a real phenomenon? The data used in the original post is merely a snapshot of the current situation. Previous years pools may show different patterns. However, it is very difficult to argue that this year’s data are an anomaly. All of the US age group pools from U15 through U23 show a bias towards selection of older players. This also means that it is very likely that the RAE will persist for years to come. In the U15 pool, 62% of the players were born in the first quarter of the year. These players will receive higher level training and offered more developmental opportunities that the non-pool players. As such, one would expect that group to show greater improvement and will have a tremendous advantage in maintaining their position within the pool. In order to overcome RAE in this age group, nearly 60% of the players born in January, February and March would have to be replaced by players born in the latter three quarters of the year. So, the answer to the question is, yes, this does appear to be a real phenomenon that is likely to impact the US National Team for years to come.

Does the RAE occur internationally? The graph on the right shows the birth date distributions for the US National Team pool and the rosters of the teams competing in this summer’s European Championships. What is striking is that 82% of the players currently in the US National Team pool were born in the first half of the year. For the teams in EURO 2008, there is a much more even distribution of birthdates across the year with 23-27% born in each quarter. As a group, the European national teams show very little, if any, RAE. Based on this, it is clear that the US National Team pool suffers from the RAE to a much greater extent than the European national teams. However, it is important to acknowledge that other countries outside of the EURO 2008 competition may show RAE that is equal to or greater than that found in the US.

What are the long-term implications of the RAE? Steve Gerrard, standout player for Liverpool and the England National Team was born late in the selection year for his age. Early in his career, he failed to make the England U16 national team and was rejected for the FA school at Lilleshall. Michael Owen, however, six months his senior, was selected. In his autobiography, Gerrard recounts the effect that it had on his career, "The one nagging doubt in the back of my mind was that my rivals were bigger. I was really small and facing some tall, strong units in my position". Gerrard now stands an even 6-feet tall and weighs nearly 180 lbs.

Gerrard resented being passed over but felt fortunate that the Liverpool staff saw his potential. “I was lucky because even though I didn't make it to the FA school at Lilleshall, my parents and the coaches at Liverpool kept complete faith with me until I developed more physically. But it cannot be fair that many of the youngest kids in the school year are left on the sidelines.”

The key point of Gerrard’s comments is that many talented players with tremendous potential are being overlooked in favor of older, more physically developed athletes. In many sports, the window of opportunity for being “identified” is often very small. For some players, the window closes early in their careers. A survey of British children suggests that by age 13, 54% of players had given up their aspiration of playing at a higher level. It is important to note that at this age, many male players have not yet entered puberty, where gains in height and muscle mass are most rapid. Unfortunately, as these younger, equally talented players don’t make the “cut”, many move on to other activities. Thus, the RAE raises the possibility that US soccer (as well as other sports) loses out on many players with the potential to improve the state, regional and national level teams.

So, in response to the emails, the RAE effect of the US National Team does appear to be a real phenomenon, it seems less likely to occur in other countries, particularly the European nations and, finally, there are a number of unfortunate implications for the younger players in terms of their development and long-term participation.

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Cutting-Edge Research: Soccer and the Battle Against Childhood Obesity

For many, interest in soccer centers around the competitive athlete. Understanding what it takes to improve ones game, step up to the next level, etc. However, for a large part of the soccer population, the competitive aspects take a back seat to other things that the sport has to offer. Improving fitness, developing friendships and simply enjoying an afternoon playing in the sun are aspect of the game that many children, teens and adults strive for. A recent study from Stanford University and the Centers for Disease Control capitalizes on these aspects of recreational soccer to show that youth soccer may have an important role in combating the growing health problem of childhood obesity.

The study examined a group of overweight fourth and fifth graders. All participants had a body mass index greater than the 95th percentile for their age (BMI is used as a measure of body size. A large BMI is indicative of being overweight or obese). The six month study placed one group of subjects in an after school program that focused on both academics and soccer. The children met 4 days per week for 150 min. The first 75 min were devoted to a homework session while the remainder of the time was spent playing and practicing soccer. So the kid received 1:15 of academics followed by 1:15 of soccer. The control group participated in a health education program rather than the soccer practices.

The soccer program was designed to promote a positive experience. It emphasized respect for self and others, inclusion, individual effort and teamwork. It also included soccer skill building and fitness improvement. Matches involved the children and often included coaches and parents.

At the end of the study, the soccer group showed interesting changes in both body type and lifestyle. There were beneficial effects on the children’s BMI and a trend towards reducing the degree of overweightness. There were also were also noticeable reductions in the time spent watching television, as well as improvements in self esteem and depression symptoms. More importantly, nearly all of the participants stated that they wanted to continue with the program after the study and many in the control group asked if they could join in. The children enjoyed playing on a sports team that included kids of similar skill and body type. Parents of the soccer group noted that the program had helped their children improve their weight, eating habits, confidence and self esteem. It seems that the key to the success of the program was emphasizing a positive and healthy environment for the kids.

It is important to remember that for a large group of those who play soccer, fitness and enjoyment is the primary goal. Soccer provides a unique combination of energy expenditure and motor coordination. It is also allows kids to develop relationships with their peers and enjoy a great deal of satisfaction. So, it is not at all surprising that researcher would find that it has a positive effect on overweight children.

This study shows that an after school soccer program designed for overweight children, can help improve kids’ fitness level, reduce the incidence of being overweight and build self confidence. The combination of exercise and promoting a positive experience seems to produce positive results. As for long term prospects, this type of program may help instill a positive lifestyle that includes exercise and eating healthy. Such an accomplishment could go a long way in combating the growing problem of both childhood and adult obesity.

Reference:

Weintraub DL, Tirumalai EC, Haydel F, Fujimoto M, Fulton JE, Robinson TN (2008) Team sports for overweight children: The Stanford Sports to Prevent Obesity Randomized Trial (SPORT). Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 162:232-237.
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The “Age-Effect” in US Soccer

For years, researchers have been interested in a youth sports phenomenon called the “age-effect”. The age-effect holds that players selected to teams tend to be the older players for their age group. That is, most players on a team tend to be born in the months closest to the cut-off for that age group. For Olympic Development Program pools, this is the first 2-3 months of the year. For club teams this is the months of August, September and October. As players are separated into age groups, some players may differ in age by nearly a year. At the youth level, a year of physical growth and maturity can make a tremendous different in the level of play. Youth athletes born in January tend to have greater body mass, height, strength and speed than their December counterparts. Thus, they are often identified as being more talented. Several studies show an age-effect in a variety of sports as well as in academic settings. Researchers have found a relative age bias with talent identification in soccer, tennis, hockey, dance and some musical performances. This is particularly evident in young boys.

This post raises the question, “Is there an age-effect in soccer?” A quick survey of US national team pools suggests that this bias is alive and well and may have consequences for player development.

The US Soccer Federation posts player pool rosters on their website. A quick survey of the boys U15 and older pools clearly shows an age-effect pattern in the selection of national pools (rosters downloaded May 2008). For the U15 pool, more than half of the U15 national pool players were born in January and February. By comparison, only 7% or 2 players were born in the latter months of October, November and December.

A similar pattern holds for the other age groups as well as the National Team pool. This is evident in the two graphs. The first graph shows the percentage of each pool born in each month (click the graph to enlarge). There is an undeniable trend towards selection of older players as a greater percentage are born in the early months of the year. Interestingly, at some age groups, there is a small increase in the percentage of players born in August, compared to July and September. August 1 is the oldest birth date for USYSA club teams and players born in August would be the oldest on their individual club teams. A more simplified view of the results is shown in the second graph. This graph collapses all the data for each pool and shows the percentage of players born in each quarter of the year. Here the results are more striking. On average, nearly half (42%) of the national pool players were born in the first quarter of the year.

On the women’s side, there is an age-effect trend, but the bias is much less pronounced. At the youngest age group (U15), nearly half of the players were born in March or earlier. However, for the older pools, the median birth month shifts from the first quarter of the year to closer to mid year. At the National Team level, the distribution of birth months is much more uniform, across all months.

To see if the age-effect in boys is a US phenomenon, the player birth dates were examined for the U15 teams of the Italian Serie A. Of the clubs currently in Serie A, 10 use the Internet to post player rosters with birth data (May 2008). At this age group, nearly half of the players, 49%, were born in the first quarter of the year and only 7% born in that last quarter. So, this age-effect in boys is not unique to the US but seems to occur internationally.

Is it possible that more talented players are both in the early months compared to the last part of the year? Yes, but highly unlikely. The age-effect trends probably reflect coaches’ preference to select more physically and psychologically mature players. In general, a player born in January will out perform his December-born competitor. Part of this difference may be due to talent, but an important component of performance is maturity. It is also likely that the age-effect trend get perpetuated as players grow older. Once selected, older players receive advanced training and the younger athletes return to their club. Thus, the gap between older and younger players persists and may even widen. This idea may be reflected in the selection of the Men’s National Team pool. At the adult level, the age-effect should be less important. An 11-12 month age difference is minimized as all players mature their mid-20s. Yet the age effect persists. Perhaps this is the result of the early birth month players being selected for advanced training early in their careers and having more developmental opportunities than their late birth month counterparts.

What does this mean and what should be done? It is important to point out that this post is not meant as a criticism of the US youth national teams selection process. It is meant to raise awareness that a bias towards older players seems to exit at many levels, including the National Team and more pronounced in males. It is also meant to emphasize the need to consider the relative age of a player when evaluating talent and potential for development. If the coach’s goal is to field the best possible team, then the best players should be selected, regardless of birth date or potential. This may indeed be the case with high school and college teams where development is less emphasized. However, if player development is the main objective, then coaches should take into account players’ birth month when selecting the player pool. Coaches should remember that they may be comparing players who have nearly a year of growth difference. For example, a player born in December whose skill level is equal to his January counterpart may actually develop into a more outstanding player once both reach the same level of physical and psychological maturity. There are numerous examples of young 14 year old players who are very skilled but get overlooked because they are less physically mature than the older players. In many cases, these players eventually mature into very gifted athletes. So, it is critically important for coaches to identify both talent and potential when selecting players to advanced training programs such as ODP and national team pools.

The age-effect seems to be a real phenomenon in youth soccer, particularly in males at the US national pool level. As such, coaches should be aware that players mature at very different rates and, during the selection process. They may be evaluating players who differ in age by nearly a year, an effect that can have a pronounced effect on what is considered “talent”. Thus, coaches should consider the relative age of the player as well and his/her current level of play.

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Do Red Uniforms Affect Match Outcome?

Can uniform color affect a team’s performance? Two articles recently published in the Journal of Sports Sciences suggest that the answer may be yes. Research at the Universities of Plymouth and Durham in the United Kingdom examined team the records of English professional leagues in an effort to determine if jersey color impacted match outcome. They found that teams that wore red at home won more games than those who wore other colors. In a second study, investigators from the University of Portsmouth and the Chelsea School report that the jersey color of a penalty takes affected goal keepers expectation of saving a penalty kick. Red jerseys reduced the keeper’s confidence. These studies raise interesting questions regarding the psychology of sport and the performance of both individual players and teams.

In the first study, researchers compiled records over 57 years, from 1947 through 2003, for the top 68 ranked teams in the English professional leagues. They categorized the teams based on their home kit. Whether they wore jerseys that were primarily red, blue, white or yellow/orange (this information was obtained from http://www.historicalkits.co.uk/ ). If color had no effect on match outcome, the number of wins would not differ between the groups of jersey color.

They researchers found that teams who wear red at home had better home records that would be expected by chance. Three of the four teams with the best home records wear red, Liverpool (1st), Manchester United (2nd) and Arsenal (4th). Leeds (3rd) wear white. In the bottom 20 teams, only one (Barnsley) wore red. Red teams won an average of 53% of their home matches. This was followed by blue (51%), white (51%) and yellow (48%). This pattern was not seen in the away matches where teams wear their alternate jersey. Red teams tended to fare poorer than the others when wearing their alternate jersey. As for league championships, red teams also won the trophy nearly 60 percent of the time while playing only ~25% of the total home matches.

In a second study, the researchers looked at the impact of jersey color on impressions formed by goalkeepers. Trained goalkeepers watched videos of players preparing to take penalty kicks and starting their run-up. The videos were filmed from the perspective of the keeper as if the viewer were preparing to defend the kick. In half of the videos, the penalty takers wore red and in the other half they wore white. The goalkeepers perceived the players wearing red more positively and as being more skilled in penalty taking ability. Also the keepers expressed less confidence in saving the kick when the taker wore red.

The authors of the first study note other studies that have shown a link between competitive performance and wearing red. In 2005, they examined the results of Olympic events such as judo, boxing and wrestling where one competitor is required to wear a red uniform and the other blue. In these sports, the trend is that the red competitor is more often victorious. The present study is the first to suggest a similar “color effect” for team sports.

These studies raise a number of interesting questions. Does this explain why Andriy Shevchenko’s play has suffered since he transferred from the Rossineri to the Blue of Chelsea? Should your team order new uniforms? The answer to both of these is probably not. While these studies are interesting, it is important to consider that there are many factors that the researchers could not consider. For the professional teams, factors such as wealth of the club play a huge part in its success. For the keepers, past experiences, the penalty taker’s body language and approach may influence his or her perception. Only when all of the other factors that influence individual and team performance are equal might jersey color tip the balance between losing a winning.

References:

Attrill MJ, Gresty KA, Hill R, Barton RA (2008) Red shirt color is associated with long-term team success in English football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26:577-582.

Greenlees I, Leyland A, Thelwell R, Filey W (2008) Soccer penalty takers’ uniform colour and pre-penalty kick gaze affect the impressions formed of them by opposing goalkeepers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26:569-576.
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Cutting-Edge Research: The Cardiovascular Stress of Watching Competitive Soccer

For many soccer fans, passions run high and close matches can evoke strong emotion stress. Past research has hinted at a relationship between the stress of watching sporting events and health problems. However, until now, there has been limited evidence showing a definitive link. In an article appearing in the January 31, 2008 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, researchers at the Munich University Clinic show that watching competitive soccer matches may lead to significant health emergencies in ardent fans.

A German research team, lead by Dr. Ute Wilbert-Lambert, examined at 4,279 medical reports from clinics in the Munich area. The reports were obtained from the seven days the German team played, the 24 days when matches involved teams from other countries, and 242 other days in 2003, 2005 and 2006. The investigators recorded events such as heart attacks and arrhythmias that required emergency medical care.

The overall results are shown in the figure. During the World Cup, the days involving the German national team saw the incidence of cardiac emergencies increase by 2.7 fold. For men, the occurrence was increased 3.3 times and 1.8 times for women. The highest incidence of events occurred during the first two hours after the start of the match. The authors stated, “Of prime importance for triggering a stress-induced event is not the outcome of a game - a win or a loss - but rather the intense strain and excitement experience during the viewing of a dramatic match, such as one with a penalty shoot-out''. The matches with the highest incidences of heart emergencies were the Germany-Argentina match that ended with Germany winning in a PK shootout and the Germany-Italy match, a close match that Germany eventually lost (peaks 5 & 6 in the figure). On those days, there were nearly 65 emergency rooms visits. In the Munich area, there are, on average, about 15 emergency room visits per day for cardiovascular problems. On the other hand, the third place match between Germany and Portugal showed little or no increase in cardiovascular emergencies, a match won by the host team.

The researchers conclude that viewing a stressful soccer match can more than double the risk of an acute cardiovascular event. It should also be pointed out that there may be factors other than emotional stress that contribute to acute heart problems. Factors such as overeating, consumption of junk food, alcohol and smoking during the match can also place a strain on the heart. Nevertheless, it is clear that passionate fans, especially those with a history of heart problems, are at risk when watching competitive matches. Clearly the best advice for those fans is to watch calmly, don’t drink and limit the amount of junk food.

Reference
Wilbert-Lampen U et al. (2008) Cardiovascular events during World Cup soccer. N Engl J Med, 358:475-483


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